Table of Contents
Overview
Definition of Global Health
Global health is a multifaceted concept that addresses transnational health issues, determinants, and solutions, involving various disciplines both within and beyond the health sciences. It promotes interdisciplinary collaboration and integrates population-based prevention with individual-level clinical care.[5.1] Although the definition of global health is debated, its core principles focus on the goal to "promote health for all".[4.1] Historically, global health evolved from "tropical medicine," linked to colonialism and imperialism.[1.1] In contemporary contexts, global health initiatives are integrated into national strategies that address economic globalization, security, and international policies. For instance, in the United States, these efforts foster international collaborations to tackle medical and health challenges through federal funding, development aid, capacity building, and scientific research.[3.1] Additionally, global health initiatives include education and policymaking to improve health outcomes worldwide.[3.1] A research study on health issues affecting rural-to-urban migrants in China exemplifies a global health perspective when it aims to inform other countries facing similar challenges.[3.1] The overarching goal of these efforts is to advance global health through research and publication.[3.1]Key Components of Global Health
Key components of global health encompass a range of interconnected issues, strategies, and practices aimed at improving health outcomes worldwide. One significant aspect is the focus on diseases prevalent in the Global South, particularly infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and childhood respiratory and diarrheal diseases. The development of the global health concept was notably driven by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which underscored the interconnected vulnerabilities to infectious diseases across nations and highlighted the emergence of transnational health challenges, including climate change.[7.1] The evolution of global health practices can be traced back to the establishment of institutions dedicated to Public Health and International Health, which emerged in response to the rising incidence of infectious diseases in colonized regions during the 1700s and early 1800s. This historical context laid the groundwork for contemporary global health initiatives.[8.1] In recent years, global health diplomacy has gained prominence, particularly as the COVID-19 pandemic revealed the critical intersection of health and geopolitics, emphasizing the need for multilateral cooperation in addressing health crises.[9.1] Data collection and analysis have become essential components of global health strategies, particularly in the context of recent pandemics. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of international data sharing, which facilitated research and improved health outcomes. Initiatives like the International COVID-19 Data Alliance (ICODA) exemplify how existing health-related data can be leveraged to address pressing research questions and enhance public health responses.[14.1] Furthermore, digital health technologies, including mobile applications and electronic health records, have significantly improved global health security by enabling timely data collection and analysis, thereby identifying infectious disease trends and reducing infection risks.[15.1] Lessons learned from historical global health initiatives, such as the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, continue to inform current approaches to emerging health threats. The eradication of polio stands as a testament to the effectiveness of coordinated global health efforts, reinforcing the importance of vaccinations and the need to document and share knowledge gained from such initiatives to foster sustained improvements in global health practices.[18.1]History
Evolution of Global Health Concepts
The evolution of global health concepts has been significantly influenced by historical events and trends that shaped the understanding and organization of health on a global scale. Initially, the history of global health can be traced through two major trends: the control of infectious diseases and the delivery of healthcare, which have both played pivotal roles in shaping health organizations and policies.[38.1] Key historical antecedents include the impact of plague pandemics, European imperialism, and the Industrial Revolution, which collectively influenced modern international health practices.[39.1] The ideologies and practices of colonial health and tropical medicine emerged during this period, addressing disease problems exacerbated by imperialism, such as malaria and yellow fever.[39.1] The establishment of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1948 marked a significant milestone in the evolution of global health. The idea for a global health organization was discussed during the formation of the United Nations in 1945, with representatives from Brazil and China advocating for its creation.[40.1] The WHO's Constitution came into force on April 7, 1948, a date now celebrated as World Health Day, symbolizing the commitment to global health governance.[40.1] In recent decades, the focus of global health has shifted towards addressing diseases predominantly affecting the Global South, including HIV/AIDS, malaria, and childhood respiratory and diarrheal diseases.[46.1] The emergence of HIV/AIDS, in particular, has driven the development of global health concepts, highlighting interconnected vulnerabilities to infectious diseases and the need for collaborative responses to health challenges.[46.1] Moreover, the role of the WHO has evolved in response to emerging global health challenges, such as pandemics and health inequities. The organization has adopted various initiatives, including the 3 by 5 Initiative aimed at increasing access to antiretroviral treatment, and the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.[41.1] Additionally, private organizations, such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, have begun to play a crucial role in shaping the funding landscape for global health initiatives.[41.1]Major Milestones in Global Health
Throughout history, significant pandemic outbreaks have played a crucial role in shaping public health policies and responses to emerging infectious diseases. The Black Death in the fourteenth century, the Spanish Flu of 1918, and more recent outbreaks such as SARS, Ebola, and Zika have all had profound social, medical, and psychological impacts on civilization. These pandemics not only decimated populations but also prompted innovations in medicine, public health, and political systems, highlighting the dual nature of their effects on society.[42.1] The evolution of public health policy can be traced back to the establishment of military hospitals in the 19th century, which laid the groundwork for a national public health system in the United States. This shift marked a transition from a military focus to addressing the health needs of the general population, driven by the necessity to control infectious diseases.[43.1] The early 20th century saw further developments as public health faced new challenges, including those posed by climate change, necessitating ongoing adaptation and evolution in public health strategies.[43.1] A pivotal moment in public health history was the publication of a report that documented the extent of disease and suffering in populations, particularly in England and the United States. This report advocated for sanitation and engineering as means to control disease and established foundational public health infrastructure. It recommended measures such as regular health surveys, supervision of water supplies, and the formation of local health boards to enforce sanitary regulations. These recommendations were instrumental in fostering the development of public health agencies and institutions, driven by new understandings of disease causation and social responsibility.[44.1]Recent Advancements
Innovations in Global Health Technologies
Innovations in global health technologies have accelerated significantly, particularly in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared an end to the public health emergency of international concern for COVID-19, yet the legacy of the pandemic continues to influence advancements in health research and development (R&D).[70.1] One of the notable initiatives launched is "The Big Catch-up," aimed at reversing declines in childhood vaccination and strengthening health systems globally.[69.1] Technological innovations are at the forefront of transforming healthcare delivery. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into healthcare has led to improved diagnostics, personalized treatment plans, and enhanced patient outcomes. AI technologies are being utilized to streamline data management, enabling efficient handling of patient records and supporting extensive medical research.[76.1] Moreover, AI predictive analytics are being leveraged to optimize treatment plans and enhance recovery rates by analyzing vast datasets, including electronic health records and genetic data.[77.1] Digital health technologies, such as remote patient monitoring, are also emerging as critical tools in healthcare. These technologies utilize sensors, wearables, and apps to collect and transmit patient data to healthcare providers, thereby enhancing accessibility and efficiency in care delivery.[92.1] This approach is part of a broader trend towards the "internet of health," which aims to make healthcare more affordable and patient-centered.[92.1] Furthermore, the World Economic Forum emphasizes the importance of fostering a sustainable and equitable healthcare industry through innovative healthcare hubs that address ineffective spending on global health.[71.1] By embracing these advancements, public health can tackle contemporary challenges, including health inequities and chronic disease management, ultimately contributing to a healthier and more equitable future for populations worldwide.[90.1]Global Health Initiatives and Programs
In response to the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, various global health initiatives have emerged to enhance vaccination efforts and improve pandemic preparedness. One significant initiative is "The Big Catch-up," which aims to boost childhood vaccination rates that have declined due to the pandemic. This initiative is a collaborative effort involving WHO, UNICEF, Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, among others. It focuses on strengthening healthcare workforces, improving service delivery, building community trust in vaccines, and addressing barriers to immunization.[80.1] To effectively engage communities, "The Big Catch-up" employs strategies such as motivational interviewing techniques, which help healthcare providers address the concerns of hesitant parents. These techniques include presumptive recommendations for vaccination and the use of visual aids to communicate vaccine risks and benefits, particularly to those with lower health literacy.[81.1] Additionally, the initiative recognizes the role of social media and health misinformation in shaping public perceptions of vaccination, highlighting the need for targeted communication strategies.[81.1] The COVID-19 pandemic has also underscored the importance of global collaboration in health initiatives. The pandemic revealed significant disparities in public health data and the limitations of existing frameworks, such as the WHO's International Health Regulations.[83.1] In light of these challenges, there is a growing emphasis on improving data sharing among countries and organizations to enhance preparedness for future health crises. Studies have indicated that effective data sharing can enable public health professionals to make informed decisions, ultimately mitigating the consequences of outbreaks and saving lives.[84.1] Moreover, the pandemic has prompted a reevaluation of pandemic preparedness strategies, as highlighted in the Global Preparedness Monitoring Board's report. This report outlines essential strategies for building resilience against future outbreaks, emphasizing the need for cross-sector connections and investment in primary healthcare systems.[73.1] The lessons learned from the COVID-19 response are expected to shape future global health policies, focusing on strengthening surveillance systems and diversifying response plans to ensure earlier access to effective interventions.[72.1]In this section:
VaccinationHealth SystemsTechnological InnovationsArtificial IntelligencePersonalized Treatment
Key Challenges
Health Inequalities and Disparities
Health inequalities and disparities represent significant challenges in global health, exacerbated by various socio-economic factors. One of the primary issues is the accessibility of healthcare services, particularly in rural and underserved regions. The global increase in noncommunicable diseases, such as cancer and diabetes, necessitates equitable access to quality healthcare to mitigate health inequalities.[101.1] The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes the need for political solutions to address these disparities, advocating for improved child and maternal care, nutrition, gender equality, and access to clean water and sanitation.[102.1] Community engagement is a crucial strategy in addressing health disparities. By involving local communities in the planning and implementation of healthcare initiatives, services can be tailored to meet the specific needs of populations, thereby enhancing access and effectiveness.[104.1] Community health programs (CHPs) have been identified as effective interventions to provide essential health services close to communities, particularly in low-income rural areas.[105.1] These programs often include community-based health insurance schemes, which can significantly increase access to healthcare services.[105.1] Moreover, the training and deployment of healthcare professionals in underserved regions are vital for addressing healthcare access disparities. Effective strategies include emphasizing the specific healthcare needs of these communities, such as maternal and child health and the prevention of infectious diseases.[103.1] Additionally, fostering collaboration among various sectors, including community-based organizations and health systems, is essential for reducing health disparities.[112.1] This collaborative approach can enhance the capacity and credibility of health interventions, ultimately leading to improved health outcomes.[113.1]Global Health Governance
Role of International Organizations
International organizations play a pivotal role in global health governance, with traditional actors such as states and entities like the World Health Organization (WHO) remaining central to health-related decision-making processes. The governance arrangements impacting health have evolved to include a diverse array of actors interconnected through complex relationships, which has led to a more multifaceted approach to health governance.[152.1] Power dynamics significantly influence the decision-making processes within these organizations. Power is defined as the capacity to act or influence the behavior of others, and these dynamics shape health policies, services, and outcomes.[153.1] Geopolitical factors, including power imbalances, can affect the structure and decision-making authority within institutions like the WHO, the United Nations, and the World Bank.[154.1] For instance, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) exemplifies how political power dynamics can impact decision-making, as seen in the context of the Syrian Civil War, where the veto power of permanent members and regional power struggles have influenced international responses.[155.1] Moreover, non-state actors, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations, are increasingly recognized for their contributions to global health governance. These entities are involved at various stages of the research cycle, enhancing the relevance and effectiveness of health research and influencing priority setting and knowledge translation.[156.1] The involvement of diverse actors, including U.S. government agencies and public-private partnerships initiated by organizations like the Rockefeller Foundation, underscores the collaborative nature of contemporary global health governance.[157.1] This multifactorial approach reflects the necessity for increased funding and support to expand public health education and initiatives globally.[156.1]Policies and Frameworks for Global Health
Global health governance encompasses a range of policies and frameworks designed to address health challenges that require collective action across borders. Defined as "the use of formal and informal institutions, rules, and processes by states, intergovernmental organizations, and non-state actors," global health governance aims to effectively manage health issues that transcend national boundaries.[134.1] The World Health Organization (WHO) plays a pivotal role in this governance structure, having been shaped by global health law since its inception, which was influenced by the post-war establishment of global governance under the United Nations.[132.1] The scope of global health governance has broadened significantly, emphasizing the need for more effective and equitable deployment of health resources.[135.1] This evolution reflects the increasing complexity of global health challenges, which necessitate innovative approaches, such as public-private partnerships. For instance, the Rockefeller Foundation initiated several partnerships in 1998, including the Medicines for Malaria Venture and the Global Alliance for TB Drug Development, to enhance collaborative efforts in addressing health crises.[140.1] In recent years, the interplay between national sovereignty and international obligations has become a critical aspect of global health policy. States often face challenges in balancing their domestic laws with international health regulations, leading to potential conflicts over sovereignty.[136.1] This tension is particularly evident during global health emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, where the need for multilateral cooperation is paramount.[137.1] The pandemic has underscored the importance of global health diplomacy, which has become integral to geopolitical considerations and the formulation of health policies.[137.1] Moreover, the role of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) in global health governance is increasingly recognized, as they comprise a significant portion of WHO's member states. Their positions and ambitions during treaty negotiations, particularly concerning pandemic preparedness and response (PPPR), are crucial for shaping global health diplomacy.[138.1] Policies aimed at enhancing research and development capacities in LMICs are essential for ensuring equitable access to health resources and technologies.[138.1] Grassroots democracy plays a significant role in addressing contemporary global health challenges, particularly as the expansion of human rights raises critical questions about accountability in decision-making processes. Unlike traditional representative democracy, grassroots initiatives enhance civil rights and liberties, thereby increasing local accountability among citizens.[139.1] This shift not only empowers individuals but also fosters social development, benefiting both participants and society as a whole. The experiences of various nations in implementing grassroots governance mechanisms highlight the potential for these systems to contribute to the social growth of communities, suggesting that integrating grassroots approaches into global health governance could be essential for effectively tackling future health crises.[139.1]In this section:
Future Directions
Emerging Trends in Global Health
Emerging trends in global health are increasingly influenced by the urgent need to address healthcare disparities and promote equity. A critical issue is the low clinician-to-population ratio in certain developed countries, such as South Korea, which has only 2.6 clinicians per 1,000 people, one of the lowest ratios in the developed world.[158.1] This shortage is compounded by rising healthcare costs and an aging population, necessitating more medical resources and attention.[160.1] To tackle these challenges, a comprehensive approach is essential. Policymakers should expand the primary care workforce by integrating nurse practitioners (NPs) and physician assistants (PAs) alongside physicians to improve access to care.[162.1] Additionally, financial assistance programs for medical students and healthcare professionals willing to work in underserved areas can help mitigate clinician shortages.[162.1] Addressing health inequities requires enhancing the cultural competency of healthcare providers and increasing workforce diversity to ensure care is accessible and tailored to diverse communities.[168.1] Interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial for addressing health disparities, particularly among underrepresented racial and ethnic populations. This approach is vital in mental health care, where interdisciplinary models emphasize continuity of care for chronic conditions, recognizing the unique contributions of each team member to meet diverse patient needs with precision and empathy.[166.1] The integration of interdisciplinary teams into mental health care is not just a trend but a necessity for advancing equity in healthcare delivery.[166.1] Despite global commitments to reduce health disparities, progress remains inconsistent due to geopolitical tensions and the complexities of achieving universal health coverage.[161.1] A robust evidence base is needed to effectively address these disparities, underscoring the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in developing solutions.[167.1]The Role of Technology in Shaping Future Health Outcomes
The availability of health technology is crucial in addressing disparities in healthcare access, particularly in low-income countries where fundamental drugs and devices are often lacking. The COVID-19 pandemic has further underscored these gaps, revealing that nearly one-third of the population in lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs) lived more than two hours away from essential healthcare services, with healthcare worker ratios significantly below the World Health Organization's recommendations.[171.1] Digital health innovations have the potential to bridge these gaps by enhancing healthcare delivery in several key areas. These include advancing diagnosis and treatment, ensuring continuity of care, facilitating off-site patient management through telemedicine, and supporting individuals in self-management of their health.[172.1] Such technologies can also help reduce errors and waste within healthcare systems, thereby improving overall efficiency and effectiveness.[172.1] The availability of health technology is inversely related to health need, with high-income countries extensively utilizing advanced technologies while the poorest populations often lack access to fundamental drugs and devices. A concerted global effort is essential to promote the development and implementation of health technologies that can specifically benefit these underserved communities.[170.1] The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted and exacerbated the existing gaps in healthcare systems within lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where nearly a third of the population lived more than two hours away from essential healthcare services prior to the pandemic. Additionally, the ratio of healthcare workers to the population in these regions typically falls well below the minimum recommended by the World Health Organization.[171.1] Addressing these disparities through innovative health technologies is crucial for improving health outcomes and ensuring equitable access to care.In this section:
References
[1] Overview of Global Health - Physiopedia — The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)'s Framework for Action on Global Health Research outlines how our concept of global health has changed over time. Initially, we had what could be termed Global Health 1.0 or "tropical medicine". This area of health was very much connected with the legacy of colonialism and imperialism.
[3] What is global health? Key concepts and clarification of misperceptions ... — As a key part of the national strategy in economic globalization, security and international policies, global health in the United States has promoted collaborations across countries to deal with challenging medical and health issues through federal funding, development aids, capacity building, education, scientific research, policymaking and implementation. A research study on a medical or health problem among rural-to-urban migrants in China can be considered as global if the researchers frame the study with a global perspective and include an objective to inform other countries in the world to deal with the same or similar issues. The purpose of this article is to promote global health through research and publication. Articles from Global Health Research and Policy are provided here courtesy of BMC
[4] What Is Global Health? Key Concepts and Issues — What is global health and which challenges abound? Keep on reading to find out. What Is Global Health? Though a concise and standalone definition of "global health" remains an on-going debate, its principles and the reasons behind such an initiative are clear."Promoting health for all" is the call to action on the grounds of which the global health initiative emerged.
[5] What Is Global Health? | Rutgers Global Health Institute — What Is Global Health? | Rutgers Global Health Institute Rutgers Health Rutgers Global Health Institute What Is Global Health? What Is Global Health? Home / What We Do / What Is Global Health? What Is Global Health? Global health emphasizes transnational health issues, determinants, and solutions; involves many disciplines within and beyond the health sciences and promotes interdisciplinary collaboration; and is a synthesis of population-based prevention with individual-level clinical care.” Global health deals with health issues and determinants that are transnational, meaning they affect multiple countries. Get Global Health News Each issue brings together impactful global health stories, upcoming events, and relevant resources from across Rutgers. Rutgers Global Health Institute is a universitywide convener and catalyst. Global Health Project Map Rutgers Global Health Institute
[7] Global Health's Evolution and Search for Identity — Global health currently focuses on diseases, mostly infectious, of the Global South (countries not defined as high-income, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere), including HIV/AIDS, malaria, and respiratory and diarrheal diseases of childhood. More than any other disease, HIV/AIDS drove development of the concept and practice of global health. Conceptual shifts include increased recognition of interconnected global vulnerability to infectious diseases and other health shocks; emergence of new, transnational challenges to health, such as climate change; and realization that countries are more similar than different in our changing world. Dr. De Cock has served as a professor of medicine and international health at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine; founding director of Projet RETRO-CI in Cote d’Ivoire; Director of CDC’s Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention—Surveillance and Epidemiology; Director of the WHO Department of HIV/AIDS; founding director of the CDC Center for Global Health; and director of CDC Kenya.
[8] Colonialism, Decolonization, and Global Health | SpringerLink — This led to the establishment of iterative institutions of Public Health, International Health, and ultimately, Global Health. Schools of 'tropical medicine and hygiene' were established to tackle the rising scourge of infectious disease in colonized nations from the 1700s and early 1800s (Arnold 1993, pp. 24-25). The naming of these
[9] Global health diplomacy—reconstructing power and governance — Over the past two decades, global health diplomacy, foreign policy for health, and global health policy have changed substantially. Diplomacy is a constitutive part of the system of global health governance. COVID-19 hit the world when multilateral cooperation was subject to major challenges, and global health has since become integral to geopolitics. The importance of global health diplomacy
[14] Data challenges for international health emergencies: lessons learned ... — The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of international data sharing and access to improve health outcomes for all. The International COVID-19 Data Alliance (ICODA) programme enabled 12 exemplar or driver projects to use existing health-related data to address major research questions relating to the pandemic, and developed data science approaches that helped each research team to
[15] The role of digital health in pandemic preparedness and ... - PubMed — Background: Digital health technologies, such as mobile applications, wearable devices, and electronic health record systems, have significantly enhanced global health security by enabling timely data collection and analysis, identifying infectious disease trends, and reducing infection risk through remote services. Objective: This study assesses the role of digital health in pandemic
[18] PDF — tive 4, it is important to document the lessons learned from polio eradication, especially considering that it is one of the largest ever global health initiatives. The health community has an obligation to ensure that these lessons and the knowledge generated are shared and contribute to real, sustained changes in our ap-proach to global health.
[38] PDF — In order to understand a broad concept, like global health, it is important to consider where it comes from. The history of global health will be told here in broad strokes and will follow two major trends that shaped global health organizations: population health through the control of infectious diseases and individual health through the delivery of healthcare. Each of the stages discussed
[39] The Historical Origins of Modern International (and Global) Health ... — Abstract This chapter explores historical antecedents of and influences on modern international (and global) health, including plague pandemics, European imperialism, colonial conquest, the Atlantic slave trade, and the Industrial Revolution. It examines ideologies and practices of colonial health and tropical medicine, disease problems exacerbated by imperialism (malaria, yellow fever, and
[40] History - World Health Organization (WHO) — Select language Donate Donate Home Health Topics All topics A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Resources Fact sheets Facts in pictures Multimedia Podcasts Publications Questions and answers Tools and toolkits Popular Dengue Endometriosis Excessive heat Herpes Mental disorders Mpox Countries All countries A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Regions Africa Americas Europe Eastern Mediterranean South-East Asia Western Pacific WHO in countries Data by country Country presence Country strengthening Country cooperation strategies Newsroom All news News releases Statements Campaigns Events Feature stories Press conferences Speeches Commentaries Photo library Headlines Emergencies Focus on Cholera Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Greater Horn of Africa Israel and occupied Palestinian territory Mpox Sudan Ukraine Latest Disease Outbreak News Situation reports Weekly Epidemiological Record WHO in emergencies Surveillance Operations Research Funding Partners Health emergency appeal International Health Regulations Independent Oversight and Advisory Committee Data Data at WHO Data hub Global Health Estimates Mortality Health inequality Dashboards Triple Billion Progress Health Inequality Monitor Delivery for impact COVID-19 dashboard Data collection Classifications SCORE Surveys Civil registration and vital statistics Routine health information systems Harmonized health facility assessment GIS centre for health Reports World Health Statistics UHC global monitoring report About WHO About WHO Partnerships Committees and advisory groups Collaborating centres Technical teams Organizational structure Who we are Our work Activities Initiatives General Programme of Work WHO Academy Funding Investment in WHO WHO Foundation Accountability External audit Financial statements Internal audit and investigations Programme Budget Results reports Governance Governing bodies World Health Assembly Executive Board Member States Portal Home/ About WHO/ History History of WHO WHO © Credits When diplomats met to form the United Nations in 1945, one of the things they discussed was setting up a global health organization. About WHO Global health organization When diplomats met to form the United Nations in 1945, one of the things they discussed was setting up a global health organization. WHO’s Constitution came into force on 7 April 1948 – a date we now celebrate every year as World Health Day. In April 1945, during the Conference to set up the United Nations (UN) held in San Francisco, representatives of Brazil and China proposed that an international health organization be established and a conference to frame its constitution convened.
[41] Timeline of global health - Wikipedia — More specific disease-targeting organizations are created primarily to fund healthcare plans in developing countries, including the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. These organizations (especially the WHO) adopt new strategies and initiatives, including the 3 by 5 Initiative to widen the access to antiretroviral treatment, the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, etc. Private large donors such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation begin to play an important role in shaping the funding landscape and direction of efforts in global health.
[42] Brief History of Pandemics (Pandemics Throughout History) — Starting with religious texts, which heavily reference plagues, this chapter establishes the fundamentals for our understanding of the scope, social, medical, and psychological impact that some pandemics effected on civilization, including the Black Death (a plague outbreak from the fourteenth century), the Spanish Flu of 1918, and the more recent outbreaks in the twenty-first century, including SARS, Ebola, and Zika. Keywords: Pandemic outbreaks, History of pandemics, Plague, Spanish influenza, SARS, Ebola, Zika, Disease X In a long succession throughout history, pandemic outbreaks have decimated societies, determined outcomes of wars, wiped out entire populations, but also, paradoxically, cleared the way for innovations and advances in sciences (including medicine and public health), economy, and political systems .
[43] History of Public Health and Its Evolution — MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH (MPH) ONLINE History of Public Health and Its Evolution That establishment was a critical moment in the history of public health. Progress continued throughout the 19th century, as military hospitals were established in key cities, forming the foundation for a national public health system. The focus of public health policy began to shift from the military to the general population, driven by a need to stop infectious diseases from taking hold in the U.S. Key 20th-Century Developments In the years following the turn of the 20th century, climate change is creating new public health challenges. By understanding how the public health field has adapted in response to challenges throughout history, the next generation of public health leaders can help that evolution continue into the future. |History of Public Health and Its Evolution
[44] 3 A History of the Public Health System - National Center for ... — The report, which influenced later developments in public health in England and the United States, documented the extent of disease and suffering in the population, promoted sanitation and engineering as means of controlling disease, and laid the foundation for public infrastructure for combating and preventing contagious disease. The report recommended, among other things, new census schedules; regular surveys of local health conditions; supervision of water supplies and waste disposal; special studies on specific diseases, including tuberculosis and alcoholism; education of health providers in preventive medicine; local sanitary associations for collecting and distributing information; and the establishment of a state board of health and local boards of health to enforce sanitary regulations. New ideas about causes of disease and about social responsibility stimulated the development of public health agencies and institutions.
[46] Global Health's Evolution and Search for Identity — Global health currently focuses on diseases, mostly infectious, of the Global South (countries not defined as high-income, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere), including HIV/AIDS, malaria, and respiratory and diarrheal diseases of childhood. More than any other disease, HIV/AIDS drove development of the concept and practice of global health. Conceptual shifts include increased recognition of interconnected global vulnerability to infectious diseases and other health shocks; emergence of new, transnational challenges to health, such as climate change; and realization that countries are more similar than different in our changing world. Dr. De Cock has served as a professor of medicine and international health at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine; founding director of Projet RETRO-CI in Cote d’Ivoire; Director of CDC’s Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention—Surveillance and Epidemiology; Director of the WHO Department of HIV/AIDS; founding director of the CDC Center for Global Health; and director of CDC Kenya.
[69] Top 40 Global Health Achievements of 2023 - Public Health Update — The WHO declared COVID-19 over as a global health emergency. Global partners announced "The Big Catch-up": a coordinated effort to reverse the declines in childhood vaccination, strengthen health systems, and work towards a future where no child dies of a vaccine-preventable disease. WHO recommended a new vaccine for malaria prevention.
[70] A year in review: The global health innovation stories that shaped 2023 — Though the World Health Organization (WHO) declared an end to the public health emergency of international concern for COVID-19 back in May, rising COVID cases and new innovations continue to make headlines in December—exemplifying this year as one still dominated by the legacy of the pandemic but also marked by exciting advances in global health research and development (R&D).
[71] 5 innovations that are revolutionizing global healthcare — 5 innovations that are revolutionizing global healthcare | World Economic Forum Technological advances are starting to revolutionize the healthcare sector. This article is part of: Centre for Health and Healthcare Healthcare innovation is accelerating at an unprecedented scale, particularly in the digital sphere, the World Health Organization says. Innovations that are transforming the global healthcare industry DiscoverWhat is the World Economic Forum doing to improve healthcare systems? The World Economic Forum’s Centre for Health and Healthcare works with governments and businesses to build more resilient, efficient and equitable healthcare systems that embrace new technologies. Global Coalition for Value in Healthcare: We are fostering a sustainable and equitable healthcare industry by launching innovative healthcare hubs to address ineffective spending on global health. Health and Healthcare SystemsEmerging Technologies
[72] Outlook of pandemic preparedness in a post-COVID-19 world — Even still, the public health, societal, and economic impact may be felt for years to come. While it is difficult to predict the next pandemic pathogen threat, making reasonable assumptions today and evaluating prior efforts to plan for and respond to disease outbreaks and pandemics may enable a more proactive, effective response in the future. Lessons from the COVID-19 response and pandemic influenza preparedness underscore the importance of strengthening surveillance systems, investing in early-stage research on pandemic pathogens and development of platform technologies, and diversifying response plans across a range of tactics to enable earlier access to safe and effective interventions in the next pandemic. These actions will not be successful without improved global coordination and collaboration.
[73] The changing face of pandemic risk: how we need to adapt, protect and ... — As new diseases emerge and old ones resurge, pandemic preparedness has become a critical concern for global health. The new Global Preparedness Monitoring Board (GPMB) report – The changing face of pandemic risk: Adapt – Protect – Connect – outlines essential strategies to build resilience against future outbreaks by adapting to changing risks, protecting communities and strengthening cross-sector connections. In the wake of COVID-19, pandemic preparedness is an urgent priority for governments, health agencies and international organizations worldwide. Strengthening pandemic preparedness is essential to mitigate the impacts of future health crises and to safeguard public health, economic stability and social cohesion. Investing in primary health care and social support systems is essential to shield communities from both the health and socioeconomic impacts of pandemics.
[76] 12 Real life Examples of AI in Healthcare - Keragon — The integration of AI into healthcare has led to numerous advancements that offer improved diagnostics, personalized treatment plans, and better patient outcomes. Healthcare Data Management: Intelligent data management powered by AI streamlines large datasets, enabling efficient handling of patient records and research data, which aids in drug development and extensive medical research. Population Health and Cost Efficiency: AI in healthcare aims to improve patient and clinical team outcomes, reduce healthcare costs, and support population health management through predictive analytics and preventive care strategies. Through AI, these platforms can analyze patient data in real-time and alert healthcare providers to any concerning changes, streamlining care delivery. As technology advances, the integration of AI into healthcare settings is poised to deliver more efficient and effective patient care solutions.
[77] Unveiling the Influence of AI Predictive Analytics on Patient Outcomes ... — This comprehensive literature review explores the transformative impact of artificial intelligence (AI) predictive analytics on healthcare, particularly in improving patient outcomes regarding disease progression, treatment response, and recovery rates. AI, encompassing capabilities such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making, is leveraged to predict disease progression, optimize treatment plans, and enhance recovery rates through the analysis of vast datasets, including electronic health records (EHRs), imaging, and genetic data. AI predictive analytics leverages advanced algorithms and machine learning (ML) techniques to analyze vast amounts of patient data, ranging from demographics and medical history to diagnostic tests and treatment outcomes. Based on their investigation of patient-specific data, the researchers concluded that machine learning algorithms provide individualized predictions. 76.A multi-omics-based serial deep learning approach to predict clinical outcomes of single-agent anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy in advanced stage non-small-cell lung cancer.
[80] Global partners announce a new effort - "The Big Catch-up" - to ... — WHO, UNICEF, Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, along with Immunization Agenda 2030 and many other global and national health partners, are today joining forces to call for “The Big Catch-up”, a targeted global effort to boost vaccination among children following declines driven by the COVID-19 pandemic. To ensure progress on childhood immunization, partners are working with countries to strengthen health care workforces, improve health service delivery, build trust and demand for vaccines within communities, and address gaps and obstacles to restoring immunization. The Vaccine Alliance brings together developing country and donor governments, the World Health Organization, UNICEF, the World Bank, the vaccine industry, technical agencies, civil society, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and other private sector partners.
[81] Effective Approaches to Combat Vaccine Hesitancy - PMC — Less intensive versions of motivational interviewing, such as Sharing Knowledge About Immunisation (SKAI) and MumBubVax (Reference 18, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/INF/E685) train providers to utilize both a presumptive recommendation to vaccinate as well as motivational interviewing techniques to elicit and respond to concerns of hesitant parents, with some positive effect shown in pilot data. Diagrams, such as icon arrays are helpful to support providers discussing vaccine risks and benefits, especially with people with lower levels of health literacy (Reference 20, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/INF/E685). The role of social media and health misinformation, including vaccination has previously been highlighted, including search patterns that are unique to the social media medium and the ability for searches to reflect temporal vaccination concerns (Reference 22–24, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/INF/E685).
[83] Disease surveillance data sharing for public health: the next ethical ... — At international level, recent Chatham House study on data sharing for public health emergencies highlighted the disparity of public health data created by sub-regional and regional surveillance networks that should be integrated into any global framework, and the limitations of the WHO established International Health Regulations (IHR).
[84] Data Sharing in Public Health Emergencies | Center for Global Health ... — It also enables public health professionals - from the community level to international organizations - to make informed decisions, mitigating the consequences of an outbreak and saving lives. The Center for Global Health Science & Security engages in dialogue and works to provide evidence to improve data sharing in public health.
[90] Public Health in the 21st Century: Challenges, Innovations & Future — This article explores innovative approaches like digital health technologies, precision medicine, and integrated care models that are transforming healthcare delivery. Emphasising prevention, effective governance, and cross-sectorial collaborations, it highlights successful case studies and the role of sustainability, health literacy, and global solidarity in shaping resilient health systems. By embracing innovation and fostering collaboration, public health can address these challenges and create a healthier, equitable future for populations worldwide. This article explores the contemporary challenges in public health, innovative approaches to address them, and a vision for the future. Community involvement is a cornerstone of successful public health interventions. While challenges such as pandemics, health inequities, and climate change persist, innovations in technology, policy, and community engagement offer transformative solutions.
[92] Future Of Health: Top Five Digital Health Innovations For 2023 - Forbes — The massive amounts of data produced by sensors, apps and wearables can be used to monitor patients and their environments to make healthcare more accessible, affordable and efficient. Remote patient monitoring uses sensors, wearables, apps and other digital tools to collect and record data, and then sends that data to a patient’s healthcare provider. Remote patient monitoring is a key part of the “internet of health.” As this technology is adopted more widely, it will allow healthcare providers to monitor a wider range of patients. Some organizations are turning to apps and other technology to help patients track their own health and share that data with their providers to have improved patient-centered care.
[101] These Are the 13 Most Pressing Global Health Issues This Decade — 3. Making health care accessible to everyone With the overall increase of cancer, diabetes, and other noncommunicable diseases worldwide, access to quality health care for all is essential in reducing health inequality. Whether it is a new vaccine-resistant strain of influenza or the continued spread of various mosquito-transmitted diseases like malaria, it is important for countries to focus on preparedness and preventative measures by investing in health care and infrastructure. To keep global health care systems afloat, the world requires an additional 18 million health care workers by the end of 2030. Groups like the anti-vaccination movement, for instance, use social media to spread misinformation, eroding public trust in health care institutions on a global scale.
[102] The 13 biggest threats to global health, according to WHO — WHO noted that it is "working with countries and partners to strengthen health systems, improve preparedness, and expand the availability of long-term contingency financing for complex health emergencies." However, the group said "political solutions" are need "to resolve protracted conflicts, stop neglecting the weakest health systems, and protect health care workers and facilities from attacks." WHO said it is working to address disparities in health equity by improving "child and maternal care, nutrition, gender equality, mental health, and access to adequate water and sanitation" and providing guidance on how countries can work to improve health care equity. In order to bolster public trust in health care workers and systems, WHO said it is working to help countries "strengthen primary care" and to combat misinformation on social media platforms.
[103] Perspective Chapter: Strategies for Enhancing Healthcare Access — One of the most effective strategies for addressing healthcare access disparities is to train and deploy healthcare professionals in rural and underserved regions. Training programs should emphasize the specific healthcare needs of these communities, such as prevention and control of infectious diseases, maternal and child health, and basic
[104] Improving Healthcare for Underserved Populations in Global Missions — Community Engagement: Engaging local communities in the planning and implementation of healthcare missions is one of the most effective strategies for ensuring equitable access. By working closely with community leaders, healthcare workers, and residents, mission teams can tailor their services to meet the specific needs of the population.
[105] What improves access to primary healthcare services in rural ... — Twenty-four (21.8%) of the full-text articles included in this review discussed that community health programs (CHPs) or community-directed healthcare interventions are best strategies to provide basic health and medical care close to the community to increase access and coverage of essential health services. In this systematic review of literature, 11 (10%) of the included articles discussed that community health funding schemes such as community-based health insurance (CBHI) increases access to healthcare services in low-income rural communities. This systematic literature review found that community health programs or community-directed healthcare interventions, school-based healthcare services, student-led healthcare services, outreach services or mobile clinics, family health program, empanelment, community health funding schemes, telehealth, integrative medicine, and working with non-profit private sectors and NGOs are key strategies to improve access to PHC services in rural communities.
[112] Engaging Communities to Combat Health Disparities: Strategies for ... — Engaging Communities to Combat Health Disparities: Strategies for Effective Collaboration - Western Pennsylvania Healthcare News Engaging Communities to Combat Health Disparities: Strategies for Effective Collaboration Importance of Community Engagement in Public Health Community engagement plays a crucial role in addressing health disparities. One effective way to do this is through community programs that address health disparities. These actions include public health policies that promote access to health care for Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and Tribal communities. These interventions can reduce health care disparities by focusing on the unique needs of each community. These collaborations help address health disparities by uniting different sectors, including community-based organizations, health systems, and public health departments. Collaboration is key to addressing health disparities through community programs.
[113] Enablers and barriers of community health programs for improved equity ... — Strategies to address SDoH towards health equity , private sector engaged in integrated community case management , community empowerment for disease prevention and health promotion building bottom-up cost-effective PHC-based systems , community communication (with trust, honouring partnerships), contributing to the community (capacity building, information sharing), and speaking the same language (hearing and respect) , community networking (based on faith and location) for collaborative opportunities to increase capacity, credibility, and confidence , sustainable collaboration and cross-sector alignment and reduced disparities towards improved health outcomes , community health planning scheme improved geographical access using a system approach working with communities to manage competing priorities , adopting a participatory process (e.g., co-design) for screening symptoms for chronic diseases, and establishing referral pathways , community ownership and partnerships and engaging internal and external champions generated public demand, social support, and PHC revitalization , strengthening the public health system influenced health benefits towards improvement in MCH services , community engagement depends on the organisational factors (culture capacity, community consultation, resources, and local government accountability to communities) , acceptable and socially connected primary care, inbuilt with social well-being, trust, and learning health system , community acceptance and ownership, societal values and norms, and technical and political arguments to find strategies .
[132] 1 Post-war Birth of Global Health Governance — The World Health Organization (WHO) has been shaped by global health law throughout its history. Drawing from the post-war establishment of global governance under the United Nations (UN), the modern foundations of global health law were laid by the WHO Constitution, which provided WHO with a range of normative authorities to realize its mandate as the UN's directing and coordinating
[134] Global Health Governance - Physiopedia — Global Health Governance is defined as "the use of formal and informal institutions, rules, and processes by states, intergovernmental organizations, and non-state actors to deal with challenges to health that require cross-border collective action to address effectively."
[135] PDF — The scope of global health governance has broadened 3. The fundamental idea underpinning global health governance is that the assets the world has at its disposal to improve peoples' health could be deployed more effectively and more fairly. Health governance implies "the use of formal and informal institutions, rules and processes by states,
[136] Understanding the Balance of International Law and National Sovereignty — As nations navigate their obligations under international law, challenges to their sovereignty may emerge, presenting a constant balancing act between global responsibilities and national interests. However, tensions can arise when domestic laws conflict with international obligations, leading to disputes over national sovereignty. Ultimately, the interplay between national sovereignty and human rights obligations challenges states to balance their desire for autonomy with their responsibilities under international law. International law presents several challenges to national sovereignty, as states often find their domestic policies influenced or constrained by international obligations. The discourse surrounding national sovereignty and international law is marked by significant contention. The future of international law and national sovereignty will hinge on striking a delicate balance between global obligations and state autonomy.
[137] Global health diplomacy—reconstructing power and governance — Over the past two decades, global health diplomacy, foreign policy for health, and global health policy have changed substantially. Diplomacy is a constitutive part of the system of global health governance. COVID-19 hit the world when multilateral cooperation was subject to major challenges, and global health has since become integral to geopolitics. The importance of global health diplomacy
[138] Understanding the expectations, positions and ambitions of LMICs during ... — Understanding the expectations, positions and ambitions of LMICs during pandemic treaty negotiations, and the factors contributing to them | PLOS Global Public Health As PPPR will continue to be discussed in the multilateral system and LMICs comprise around 65% of WHO’s 194 Member States , it is necessary to understand the positions of LMIC Member States in view of how this influences global health diplomacy, PPPR and the continuing pandemic treaty negotiations. Article 9 is focused on increasing the R&D capacity and capability for public health and PPPR in LMICs. The article states that each Party shall develop policies for government-funded R&D agreements for PPPR that enable timely and equitable access via mechanisms including non-exclusive licensing, affordable pricing, and technology transfer on voluntary terms.
[139] Grassroots governance and social development: theoretical and ... — The expansion of human rights raises important new issues for society, such as who should be held accountable for decisions. In contrast to traditional representative democracy, grassroots democracy expands civil rights and liberties and holds citizens more accountable at the local level. Concurrently, it generates some potential benefits for social development, both for the individuals who take part in it and for society as a whole. This study examines the experience of nations worldwide in implementing grassroots democracy and grassroots governance mechanisms. It makes an effort to evaluate the potential and prospects of legal conceptualisation of the concept of grassroots governance and adaptation of personal self-governance systems in terms of the social growth of communities.
[140] Global Health: Governance and Policy Development - PMC — In addition to well-known actors, such as the US Agency for International Development and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, executive branch agencies with a significant involvement in global health include the departments of state, defense, agriculture, homeland security, labor, and commerce, as well as the National Institutes of Health, the Food and Drug Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Peace Corps, and the Health Resources and Services Administration. Reflecting the emergence of the new era in global health governance, in 1998 the Rockefeller Foundation established an initiative to create innovative new public-private partnerships, including the Medicines for Malaria Venture, the Global Alliance for TB Drug Development, and the International Partnership on Microbicides.38
[152] Power asymmetries in global governance for health: a conceptual ... — Global governance for health in flux. It has become commonplace to note that the governance arrangements impacting health encompass an increasing number of actors that are bound together through complex linkages .]. "Traditional" actors in global health—states and international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO)—remain centrally important
[153] Power analysis in health policy and systems research: a guide to ... — Power is defined as the ability or capacity to 'do something or act in a particular way' and to 'direct or influence the behaviour of others or the course of events'. 1 Relationships of power shape societies, and in turn, health policies, services and outcomes. 2 Power dynamics—or the relational power that manifests in the interaction
[154] The Crucial Role of Geopolitics: Understanding the Power Dynamics ... — The Crucial Role of Geopolitics: Understanding the Power Dynamics Shaping our World The Crucial Role of Geopolitics: Understanding the Power Dynamics Shaping our World Geopolitics, the study of how geography and power intersect, plays a vital role in shaping the dynamics of our global landscape. This article will delve into the significance of geopolitics, highlighting its impact on international relations, security, economic systems, and global decision-making processes. Geopolitical power imbalances can shape the structure and decision-making power within institutions such as the United Nations, World Bank, or International Monetary Fund. By examining the geopolitical factors influencing national security, resource distribution, trade, diplomacy, regional conflicts, global decision-making, environmental challenges, and societal dynamics, we gain a deeper understanding of the forces shaping our collective future.
[155] The Role of Economic, Social and Political Factors in Decision Making ... — The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is perhaps the most visible example of how political power dynamics affect decision making within international organisations. The Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, is a complex conflict that has exposed the significant influence of political factors in decision making within world organisations, particularly the United Nations (UN), the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and regional bodies like the Arab League. This case study illustrates how political factors, including the veto power of permanent UNSC members, regional power struggles, and the interests of major powers like the United States and Russia, have impacted decision-making within international organisations. The case of the Syrian Civil War demonstrates how political factors, including the use of veto power in the UNSC, regional alliances, and geopolitical interests, can significantly influence decision-making within world organisations.
[156] Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) in Global Health — More government and NGO funding is needed to continue establishment and expansion of schools and programs of public health education. Role of NGOS in Global Health Research. NGOs are contributing at all stages of the research cycle, fostering the relevance and effectiveness of the research, priority setting, and knowledge translation to action.
[157] Global Health: Governance and Policy Development - PMC — In addition to well-known actors, such as the US Agency for International Development and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, executive branch agencies with a significant involvement in global health include the departments of state, defense, agriculture, homeland security, labor, and commerce, as well as the National Institutes of Health, the Food and Drug Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Peace Corps, and the Health Resources and Services Administration. Reflecting the emergence of the new era in global health governance, in 1998 the Rockefeller Foundation established an initiative to create innovative new public-private partnerships, including the Medicines for Malaria Venture, the Global Alliance for TB Drug Development, and the International Partnership on Microbicides.38
[158] 2025 global health care outlook | Deloitte Insights — South Korea has one of the lowest ratios of doctors to population in the developed world, with just 2.6 clinicians per 1,000 people.7 Later in 2024, junior doctors from England's National Health Service (NHS) engaged in a prolonged strike for higher pay and better working conditions, resulting in the cancellation of more than 1.5 million appointments, according to the NHS.8 In New Zealand, about 36,000 nurses, health care assistants, and midwives went on strike in December 2024, calling for higher pay, increased staffing, improved patient safety.9 Burnout among clinical staff, often due to prolonged stress from demanding work conditions, can decrease productivity, reduce job satisfaction, and negatively impact patient care.10
[160] Healthcare Challenges 2025: Key Issues & Future Insights — Healthcare Challenges in 2025: Key Issues Shaping the Future of Global Health Home>Blog>Healthcare Challenges in 2025: Key Issues Shaping the Future of Global Health As per the data from National Health Expenditures (Source), in the U.S. alone, healthcare spending has increased over the years: ➢ Rising Healthcare Costs: Older people require more medical attention, leading to increased expenses for chronic illness management, specialized care, and related needs. Healthcare systems are struggling to cope with the rising demand for mental health services, facing obstacles such as long wait times for therapy, limited access to specialized care, and insufficient resources. To sum it up, there are many challenges in healthcare today — ranging from rising costs and growing mental health concerns to data security issues and the complexities of an aging population.
[161] Global health inequities: more challenges, some solutions — Health inequity is the presence of unfair, avoidable or remediable differences in achieving optimal health and well-being among people. However, despite global commitment to reduce health inequities, progress has been uneven 1 or even delayed by slow progress towards universal health coverage (UHC). 2 The current geopolitical tensions and high number of refugees further compound the challenges
[162] Programs and Policies to Improve Access and Quality of Care for ... — While physician
[166] Addressing Mental Health Disparities with Interdisciplinary Teams — Addressing Mental Health Disparities with Interdisciplinary Teams – HARNESS Addressing Mental Health Disparities with Interdisciplinary Teams Furthermore, interdisciplinary care models emphasize continuity of care, which is critical for patients with chronic mental health conditions. By recognizing the unique contributions of each role, interdisciplinary teams can address mental health disparities more effectively, ensuring that diverse patient needs are met with both precision and empathy. By integrating these perspectives, interdisciplinary teams can develop robust care plans that not only treat symptoms but also address root causes, making strides toward equity in mental health care delivery. The integration of interdisciplinary teams into mental health care is not merely a trend—it is a necessity.
[167] Design and evaluation of an interdisciplinary health disparities ... — Background Disparities in health and healthcare are widely documented for underrepresented racial and ethnic populations across a spectrum of diseases and care settings. An evidence base for addressing racial and ethnic disparities in health and healthcare requires investigators trained to conduct health disparities research.
[168] Addressing Health and Health-Care Disparities: The Role of a Diverse ... — This article offers a rationale for increasing the diversity and cultural competency of the health and health-care workforce, and describes key strategies led by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' Office of Minority Health to promote cultural competency in the health-care system and strengthen community-level approaches to improving health and health care for all. Considering this approach, this article highlights two of several HHS Office of Minority Health strategies that align with the HHS Disparities Action Plan, bridging workforce diversity and SDH to address disparity reduction efforts: (1) prioritizing cultural competence of health-care providers and systems to better serve patients with diverse cultural, social, and linguistic backgrounds; and (2) supporting initiatives that increase diversity within the workforce and promote community-based models to improve access to and quality of health care for all.
[170] Technologies for global health - The Lancet — Availability of health technology is inversely related to health need. Although health-care systems in high-income countries make extensive use of technology, people in the world's poorest countries often lack the most fundamental drugs and devices. A concerted global effort to encourage the development and use of health technologies that can benefit the poorest people in the world is needed.
[171] Unlocking digital healthcare in lower- and middle-income countries — The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted—and exacerbated—the gaps in healthcare systems in lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Prior to the pandemic, almost a third of the population in those countries lived more than two hours away from essential healthcare services, and the ratio of healthcare workers to population was typically well below the minimum recommended by WHO. 1 "Health
[172] The Promise of Digital Health: Then, Now, and the Future — In addition, the development of this paper was informed by the National Academy of Medicine Leadership Consortium’s Digital Health Action Collaborative (DHAC) and DHAC’s prior work stewarding development of the international statement on Digital Health and the Learning Health System, issued collectively in 2020 by national academies of science and medicine of 14 countries (NASEM, 2020). The authors see the potential in digital innovation in health care delivery in the following areas: advancing diagnosis and treatment, ensuring care continuity, facilitating off-site patient management through telemedicine, partnering with individuals to support self-management, and reducing error and waste in the delivery system. Available at: https://www.kff.org/health-costs/issue-brief/americans-challenges-with-health-care-costs/ [Google Scholar] https://nam.edu/programs/value-science-driven-health-care/ [Google Scholar] https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2020/03/patients-seek-better-exchange-of-health-data-among-their-care-providers . https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2018/10/02/enhanced-patient-matching-critical-to-achieving-full-promise-of-digital-health-records .